Evolution Of The Internet: How We Got Our Most Impactful Modern Invention
The internet is undoubtedly our most impactful modern invention. It has revolutionized the way we live, work, and communicate, making it a vital necessity worldwide. It's hard to imagine a world where we don't have instant access to information or the convenience of interacting with our loved ones within seconds. But, as the internet continues to integrate into our lives, we tend to forget that most of its advantages only came at the turn of the 21st century.
In the following article, we will take a look at the evolution of the Internet. From its initial blueprint as a communication system to a global network encompassing billions of electronic devices, we will go through the steps that made this invention possible. We will also highlight the key researchers and scientists who played pivotal roles in shaping the net, as well as the infrastructure that had to be laid before we got to gigabits of fiber.
So, whether you've been browsing the web since dial-up, or you were fortunate enough to start with broadband, you're bound to either reminisce about the past, or at least appreciate how far we've come. As the internet continues to expand and change our lives, the creation process might just provide a glimpse into the exciting possibilities that lie ahead.
The Cold War
In the 1950s, there was growing tension between the United States and the Soviet Union. The Cold War had resulted in both countries now possessing nuclear weapons, and the fear of surprise attacks was widespread. Recognizing the need for a large-scale communication system that could withstand a potential Soviet nuclear attack, the United States sought to develop a resilient solution.
During this time, computers were enormous and expensive machines primarily used by military personnel and scientists. While they were robust, they were limited in number, posing a great challenge for those who wanted to use them. Users often had to travel far distances to access them, leading to delayed productivity and frustration among many. If a solution to a large-scale communication system was to be found, then computer availability would have to be the starting point.
To address this issue, a concept called "time-sharing" was implemented. This approach allowed multiple users to simultaneously access a mainframe computer through a network of terminals. By allowing multiple users access to a single computer, time-sharing enhanced the accessibility of computing resources. The downside, however, was that each individual user would be limited to a fraction of the primary computer's processing power.
Time-sharing systems were not specific to the internet itself, but they played a crucial role in laying the foundation for the development of networking technologies that eventually led to the creation of the internet. The stage was set for the collaborative and interconnected nature of the internet. This idea came to fruition when various scientists delved into further research under the guidance of the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in 1958.
The Advanced Research Projects Agency
In 1958, President Dwight D. Eisenhower formed the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). Utilizing the best scientific minds in the United States, its mission was to help the country's military stay ahead of its enemies, while also testing the viability of a large-scale computer network.
Among the many researchers within the ARPA, Lawrence Roberts and scientist Leonard Kleinrock were two of its most important roleplayers. Roberts made two separate computers in different places communicate with each other for the first time ever. Using a telephone line with an acoustically coupled modem, the experimental link transferred digital data using packets. Fast forward to the first packet-switching network being developed in 1969, Kleinrock then successfully used it to send messages to another site. The ARPANET had been created.
Once the ARPANET was up and running, 30 military, academic, and research institutions had joined its network by 1973. Moreover, it had expanded beyond the United States to locations including Norway, the U.K., and Hawaii. The United States and the Advanced Research Projects Agency's mission of a large-scale communication system had been accomplished.
While not necessarily the internet we know today, the ARPANET network allowed information and resources to be exchanged between researchers and scientists working in various institutions across multiple countries. But the best was yet to come, ARPA soon pioneered the foundations of both the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP) for the modern-day TCP/IP protocol suite.
Introduction of TCP/IP
As ARPANET grew in size, more computers began to join its network. The need for an agreed set of rules for handling data became paramount. In 1974, American scientists, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn proposed sending data packets in a digital envelope or datagram. The address on the datagram could be read by any computer, with the final host machine being the only one to open the envelope and read the contents inside.
Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf dubbed this method, "TCP" or Transmission Control Protocol. TCP essentially allowed computers to speak the same language, while also helping ARPANET grow into a global interconnected network, or, the "internet." When TCP was then combined with IP (Internet Protocol) it would then help internet traffic find its destination.
The introduction of Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) was another crucial step in the development of the internet. By enabling the seamless exchange of information across diverse networks, so began the internet's rapid expansion and the number of computers that now had access to it. While it wouldn't be correct to say that TCP/IP alone created the "internet" handle, it can be considered the fundamental component for its widespread adoption. By allowing different computers and hardware to now communicate seamlessly, ARPANET, and now the internet had transformed into a global phenomenon.
The Domain Name System (DNS)
The Domain Name System (DNS) was created by Paul Mockapetris, Craig Partrige, and Jon Postel to address the demand for a scalable and human-readable naming system for computers and resources on the internet. Before DNS came into existence, the internet leaned on a centralized "hosts file," which maintained a mapping of computer names to their corresponding IP addresses.
As one could imagine, as the internet expanded, so did the difficulty in maintaining and updating the "hosts file." A more efficient system was needed to control the growing number of computers and resources connected to the internet. DNS decentralized and automated the process of mapping domain names (for example, websitename.com) to IP addresses. A hierarchical structure was fashioned where domain names were instructed into a tree-like system of domains, with top-level domains (TLDs) such as ".com" or ".net."
DNS, therefore, operates by employing a distributed network of servers that collectively store and manage the domain name records. These DNS servers maintain databases that store the IP addresses linked with specific domain names. In other words, when a user enters a domain name in their browser, DNS resolves that domain name to the corresponding IP address. A connection is then established, providing the user with their desired resource on the internet.
In the grand scheme of evolution, DNS provided an efficient naming system for the growing internet and improved its overall reliability. An automated system for navigating the internet had now arrived.
The emergence of email
As ARPANET or the internet continued to gain popularity and expand its reach, users soon recognized its potential as a tool for sending messages between different computers, which led to the emergence of email. The problem, however, was that email wasn't as precise in its early stages. Initially, the "@" symbol was used to distinguish between the individual user's name and the name of their computer. For example, user "Bob" and his computer "PC1" would have an email address along the lines of "Bob@PC1." But once the Domain Name System (DNS) arrived, things improved for the better.
The Domain Name System (DNS) expanded email addresses, including more information for pinpoint routing. Instead of just including the user name and computer name, DNS now allowed email addresses to indicate the specific host and domain as well. For example, if "Bob's" computer was part of a larger network within a company called "X," his email address could be "Bob@PC1.X.com." In other words, this format made it easier to identify the exact location of the recipient within the network.
With email becoming more accurate and easy to use, users started exchanging personal messages and creating mailing lists. This led to the exchange of ideas, discussions, and connections within like-minded groups. Perhaps laying the foundation of social media today. The shift of primarily accessing information on the internet now evolved into a sense of community.
The proposal of the World Wide Web
Between 1986 and 1987, the internet saw a period of heightened expansion thanks to DNS, TCP/IP, and email. The network had climbed from approximately 2,000 to 30,000 hosts as people were now sending messages, swapping files, and accessing information. With that said, advanced knowledge of computing was still required to correctly dial into the system, as the internet was a complex and fragmented process.
To address this issue, British computer scientist, Tim Berners-Lee proposed the "World Wide Web," a system that could efficiently organize and link content on the internet. With a standardized format for creating web pages using Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) and a protocol for transmitting and retrieving information called Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Tim Berners-Lee formed the basis of the World Wide Web. Hyperlinks could now be established to navigate from one document to the next.
Now being a much easier and user-friendly interface, the World Wide Web made the internet much more accessible to a broader audience beyond computer experts and researchers. Finally, by 1991, the code to create more web pages was released, allowing enthusiasts around the world to create their own websites. A free, global space of information that was accessible to the general public had now taken shape.
Web browsers
While the World Wide Web was technically the first web browser, it was limited to the NeXTSTEP operating system and provided basic functionalities to view and navigate web pages. Marc Anderson, an American student in Illinois, took it upon himself to launch a new browser called Mosaic that could work on various computers while still maintaining simple point-and-click access to the World Wide Web. Additionally, Mosaic features the ability to display images next to text, without requiring users to open a separate window.
After the Mosaic browser success, Marc Andreessen went on to form Netscape Communication with entrepreneur Jim Clark. They created Netscape Navigator, which was faster and more sophisticated than its predecessor and any other competitors. By 1995, Netscape Navigator had caused another explosion within the internet, with approximately 10 million global users now being active. Support features such as JavaScript, plugins, and improved HTML standards compliance were luring computer enthusiasts in by the masses, with the general public now enjoying an ever-changing browsing experience. It's no surprise, by the start of 1996, the number of websites on the internet had increased from just over a hundred, to over 100,000.
Toward the late '90s, more web browsers continued to pop up. Instead of each browser having its own special features, developers started agreeing on common rules or open web standards. For example, one important standard was XHTML, an improvement over HTML, which was now more consistent and predictable. These common practices by everyone made it easier for websites to work properly on different browsers, creating a level playing field.
Early e-commerce
As the internet continued to gain popularity in the late '90s and early 2000s, it wasn't long before entrepreneurs saw its potential as a platform for conducting business. Online retailers such as Amazon and eBay were some of the first to emerge, selling physical items such as CDs and books. The main challenge early e-commerce faced however was trust and security.
You see, the general public had never experienced online commercial activities or electronic marketplaces. They were so used to dealing in cash that there were great concerns about security, privacy, and the legitimacy of online transactions. If you couldn't physically see the items, and there were no physical stores, how could you tell if they were real?
Fortunately, a solution was found quickly in the form of secure payment systems such as PayPal, which was not only convenient in its approach with multiple currency support but also offered buyer and seller protection for online transactions. Disputes could now be taken up by them, going as far as offering reimbursements for certain cases of fraud and unauthorized transactions.
But, e-commerce still wasn't smooth sailing, even with the added security measures. The internet still had its technological limitations such as slow internet speeds and limited bandwidth. Additionally, even with preventative measures, there would still be those who would try to infiltrate the system (the dawn of cyber criminals). Governments and regulatory bodies had to come together to create legal frameworks and regulations related to consumer protection, intellectual protection, and taxation.
Faster internet speeds
As the internet continued to expand in the early 2000s, it became important to prioritize its infrastructure. At the time, the most common methods for internet connectivity were dial-up connections, DSL (digital subscriber line), and cable internet. Most users who accessed the internet for the first time relied on dial-up connections, which involved using a telephone line to establish a connection. The downside, however, was its incredibly slow maximum speed threshold of 56 kilobits per second (Kbps).
On the other hand, if you were willing to spend a bit more, you could utilize DSL. This technology also used existing phone lines to deliver internet to households but offered a much faster speed ranging from a few megabits per second (Mbps) to tens of Mbps depending on phone distance from the telephone exchange. The difference between dial-up and DSL was that dial-up was "piggybacking" on phone lines using voice-transfer protocols, while DSL was specifically designed to carry data.
An even faster option in the early 2000s was also cable internet. This connection type used copper coaxial cables that provided users with cable TV. Depending on your area, download speeds could reach over 100 Mbps, in addition to offering much lower latency than DSL. This gave rise to downloading and uploading larger media files, as well as helping gamers get lower ping in-game. The catch however was price and availability. Cable wasn't always accessible in less populated rural areas.
Moving towards the mid to late 2000s, broadband and fiber optic connections became the norm. By using light signals to transmit data, speeds improved even further reaching hundreds of Mbps to several gigabits per second. With users now having access to ultra-fast internet connections, downloads became streams, and instant access meant no more waiting times.
Integration with technology
With the internet now faster than ever, so came a shift in technology, and everyday life. A new era of connectivity paved the way for portable laptops and smartphones, which could now connect to the web through cell towers. The mid-2000s was a time of internet-enabled apps, optimized browsers, and lightning-fast download/upload speeds. Major towns and cities had enough infrastructure in place to where almost anyone could connect to the internet if they had the means.
As technology grew, so did entertainment in the form of online media and content creation. While faster internet speeds initially meant users could download and save videos within a few minutes, streaming became a better option. Platforms such as YouTube offered videos and series that were available within a few clicks. Moreover, online gaming flourished as gamers around the world could now engage with each other, generating popularity and birthing the esports scene.
Perhaps the biggest leap was in social networking. The United States' initial goal of a large-scale communication system had now indirectly created social media platforms decades later. Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram allowed people to build communities, share ideas, and influence trends. With billions of people now using the internet by 2010, so too came further monetization and e-commerce. The early days of ad revenue, sponsorships, and influencers showed people that almost anyone could make money online.
The future of the internet
The future of the internet holds immense possibilities that are likely to continue improving our everyday lives. The rollout of 5G networks and satellite internet promises to not only improve speeds and increase capacity but also bridge the digital divide, bringing internet access to everyone worldwide. As infrastructure continues to improve, new technology and apps are where real innovation can be found.
Artificial intelligence (AI) technologies on the web are poised to play a major role in shaping the future. In its infancy, we have already found it useful for enhancing efficiency, decision-making, and automation across various domains. Additionally, the recent shift toward Blockchain technology is now beyond cryptocurrencies. By offering secure and decentralized record-keeping and transactions, Blockchain has the potential to revolutionize industries like finance, enabling transparency, efficiency, and security.
From a more personalized perspective, the Internet of Things (IoT) anticipates a world where everyday objects are interconnected, enabling them to collect and share data. IoT applications have already been found in wearables, transportation, and healthcare. This connectivity, like AI, will improve efficiency and allow for automation of daily tasks.
It's important to note here that the above ideas are ongoing trends and potential directions that the internet could go. However, the internet has always been influenced by unforeseen advancements and societal shifts. How we live, work, and interact with technology by using the internet might be entirely different in the coming years. With that said, one consistent aspect is the internet's potential to enhance convenience, foster opportunities, and broaden access to information.